9-1 - civics STORY OF CHILE AND POLAND TO UNDERSTAND HOW DEMOCRACY RESTORED

CLASS 9TH

LESSON -1 STORY OF CHILE AND POLAND TO UNDERSTAND HOW DEMOCRACY RESTORED

Democracy is a Greek word that means “popular rule.” The Greeks laid the foundation for democracy way back in 508 BC in Athens. There are two underlying principles of democracy accepted universally– Equality and Freedom.

Salvador Allende was a member of the Socialist Party in Chile, and was actively involved in his country’s politics for over forty years before getting elected its President in 1970.

He redistributed land to the landless farmers, reformed the educational system, provided free milk for children and opposed foreign companies taking over his country’s natural resources. Allende’s people-friendly policies were upsetting the Government of the United States. The United States was interested in Chile’s mineral wealth, including the vast deposits of copper. The United States financed a military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet of the Chilean Army.

The coup was staged on the 11th September, 1973, beginning with the military commanders ordering Allende to resign or leave the country. Allende refused and the Chilean Army killed him. General Augusto Pinochet installed himself as the President of the country, and ruled it for 17 years. Amongst the people who opposed the coup and wanted democracy to be restored was General Alberto Bachelet. General Bachelet was subsequently imprisoned and tortured on Pinochet’s orders.

Pinochet’s military dictatorship was in its last stages in 1988. Political freedom was finally restored in 1990 and Pinochet was tried in the court of law for crimes against humanity. Chile has held four presidential elections successfully. In 2006, Michelle Bachelet became the country’s first woman President.

In 1980, Poland was ruled by a communist party known as The Polish United Worker’s Party. Under the communist regime, all factories and big property were owned by the government. Strikes to show grievances were illegal, and so were independent trade unions.

Poland's transition to democracy came with the formation of the workers union known as Solidarity under the leadership of Lech Walesa. Lech Walesa was elected the President of Poland. Chile was a military dictatorship, while Poland was ruled by a communist political party. Chile witnessed a transition from democratic to non-democratic and back to democracy, whereas Poland witnessed a transition from non-democratic to democratic.

There were many differences between the two governments. The government of Poland claimed that it was ruling on behalf of the working classes, whereas the military dictatorship of Chile under Pinochet made no such claims and supported foreign businesses.

The similarities, between the two:

The people could not choose or change the rulers.

There was no freedom of expression.

The people could not form political associations or organise peaceful protests, and could not take political action.

X- 4 N-Agriculture

10 Geo 4 -Agriculture

Agriculture is a primary activity which produces most of the food that we consume besides food grain it also produces raw material for various industries.

Agriculture means the science or practice of cultivation of soil, raising crops and rearing livestock is called agriculture.

Some agriculture product like tea, coffee, spice, etc…

*Types of farming:*

Cultivation method has changed significantly depending upon the characteristics of physical environmental, technological know – how and socio – culture practices.

Farming various from subsistence to commercial type.

At present in different parts of India.

1)*Primitive Subsistence Farming*:

This type of farming is still practiced in few pockets of India

The help of primitive tools like hoe dao and digging sticks, and family /community labour.

This type of farming depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions to the crops grown.

It is ‘salsh and burn’ agriculture.

The soil fertility decreases.

The farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation.

2) *Intensive Subsistence Farming:*

This type of farming is practiced is areas of high population pressure on land .

It is labour intensive farming.

The biological inputs and irrigation are used for obtaining higher production.

There is enormous pressure on agriculture land.

3) *Commercial Farming:*

This type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs.

The degree of commercialization of agriculture various from one region to another.

A single crop s grown on a large area.

The help of migrant labourers.

The produces is used as raw material in respective industries.

A) *Cropping Pattern:*

These are also reflected in agricultural practices and cropping pattern in the country.

India has three cropping seasons – rabi, kharif and zaid.

Rajasthan has also been an important factor in the growth of the above-mentioned rabi crops.

he crops produced during ‘zaid’ are watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops.

1)*Major crops:*

Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds. Cotton and jute, etc.,

2)Non – Food Crops:

a - Rubber:

It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions.

It requires moist nd humid climate with rainfall of more than 200cm. and temperature above 25℃

b-Fibre Crops:

Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India.

Rearing of silkworms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.

c-Cotton:

India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant.

In 2008 India wass second largest producer of cotton after china.

d-Jute:

It is known as the golden fibre.

It is losing market to synthetic fibres and packing materials, particularly the nylon.

*Technological and Institutional Reforms:*

The pace of agricultural development.

Agriculture which provides a livelihood for more than 60 per cent.

The government of India embarked upon introducing agricultural in the 1960s and 1970s

1-The government also announces minimum support prices remunerative and procurement prices for important crops.

2-Consolidation of holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given priority to bring about institutional reforms in the country after independence.

3-The green revolution based on the use of package technology and the white revolution (operation flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve a lot of Indian agriculture.

4-Land reform was the main focus of our first five-year plan.

Development in few selected areas. In the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land development programme was initiated, which includes both institutional and technological reforms.

1-Provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone, fire and disease.

2-Establishment of Grameen Banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest.

3- Kisan credit cards and personal accident insurance schemes introduced.

4-Special weather bulletins and agricultural 5-programmes for farmers were introduced on radio and T.V.

6-The government also announces minimum support price.

7-Remunerative and procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middleman

*Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture:*

Globalisation is not a new phenomenon.It was there at the time of colonisation.

Till today it is one of the important items of export from India.

Cotton textile industry in Manchester and Liverpool flourished due to the availability of good quality cotton from India.

The Champaran movement which started in 1917 in Bihar.

Under globalisation, particularly after 1990, the farmer in India have been exposed to new challenges.

**Contribution of agriculture to the national economy, employment and output:**

Gross Domestic Product has registered a declining trend from 1951 onwards.

The population continues to be as high as 63 per cent in 2001.

The government of India made concerted efforts to modernize agriculture in India.

India made concerted efforts to modernize agriculture Establishment of Indian Council of Agriculture.

The growth rate in agriculture is decelerating which is an alarming situation.

*Agriculture backbone of Indian Economy.*

Share in the gross domestic product.

Providing employment.

Livelihood to the population.

The government of India made concerted efforts to modernize agriculture.

Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural Research, agricultural universities.

Veterinary services and animal breeding centers.

Horticulture development.

Research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast.

Food Security:

The number of people who do not have food security is disproportionately large in some region of our country particularly in economically less developed states with the higher incidence of poverty.

The focus of the policy is on fixing the support price for procurement of wheat and rice to maintain their stocks. Food Corporation of India.

The FCI procures food grains from the farmers at the government announced minimum support price.

The competition for land between non – agriculture uses such as housing etc.,

The farmers are badly affected by the uncertainties of production and market.

The higher the supply the lower is the demand.

10 Geo 4 – Agriculture

Types of Farming The cultivation methods depend upon the characteristics of the physical environment, technological know-how and socio-cultural practices. Farming varies from subsistence to commercial type. In different parts of India, the following farming systems are practised. Primitive Subsistence Farming It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture. Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food crops. When the soil fertility decreases, the farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for cultivation. It is known by different names in different parts of the country. It is known as jhumming in north-eastern states. Land productivity is low in this type of agriculture. This type of farming depends on monsoon. This farming is practised in a few parts of India. Intensive Subsistence Farming This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land. It is labour-intensive farming, where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for higher production. Commercial Farming This type of farming uses higher doses of modern inputs such as high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides to obtain higher productivity. Plantation is a type of commercial farming in which a single crop is grown on a large area. Plantations cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant labourers. All the produce is used as a raw material in industries. Eg: Tea, Coffee, Rubber, Sugarcane, Banana. Cropping Pattern India has three cropping seasons: Rabi Kharif Zaid Major Crops in India A variety of food and non-food crops are grown in different parts of India, depending upon the variations in soil, climate and cultivation practices. Major crops grown in India are: Rice Wheat Millets Pulses Tea Coffee Sugarcane oil seeds Cotton Jute We will discuss all of these one by one, in detail. Rice It is a kharif crop. It requires high temperature and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm. India is the second largest producer of rice in the world after China. It is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions. Wheat This is a rabi crop. It requires a cool growing season and bright sunshine at the time of ripening. It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season. The Ganga-Satluj plains in the north-west and black soil region of the Deccan are two main wheat-growing zones in India. It is the second most important cereal crop and main food crop, in the north and north-western part of India. Millets Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are the important millets grown in India. These are known as coarse grains and have very high nutritional value. Maize It is a Kharif crop. It requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil. It is used both as food and fodder. Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Pulses India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world. Pulses are the major source of protein in a vegetarian diet. Major pulses grown in India are Tur (Arhar), Urad, Moong, Masur, Peas and Gram. Pulses are mostly grown in rotation with other crops so that the soil restores fertility. Major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka. Food Crops other than Grains Sugarcane It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop. It grows well in hot and humid climates with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and annual rainfall between 75cm to 100cm. It can be grown on a variety of soils. Needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting. India is the second largest producer of sugarcane only after Brazil. Sugarcane is the main source of Sugar, Gur (Jaggery), Khansari and molasses. The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana. Oil Seeds Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12% of the total cropped area of India. Main oil-seeds produced in India are: Groundnut: is a Kharif crop and accounts for half of the major oilseeds produced in India. Gujarat is the largest producer of groundnuts. Mustard: is a rabi crop. Sesamum (til): is a Kharif crop in the north and rabi crop in south India. Castor seeds: It is grown as both Rabi and Kharif crop. Linseed: is a rabi crop. Coconut Soyabean Cotton seeds Sunflower Tea It is also an important beverage crop introduced by the British in India. The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates with deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter. Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year. Tea is a labour-intensive industry. Major tea producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Coffee Yemen coffee is produced in India and this variety of coffee is in great demand all over the world. Its cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and is confined to the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Horticulture Crops India is a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits. Major crops produced are pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato. Some of the famous horticulture crops grown in India are: Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Lichi and Guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar Pineapples of Meghalaya Grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra Apples, pears, apricots and walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh Technological and Institutional Reforms Agriculture provides a livelihood for more than 60% of its population, so this sector needs some serious technical and institutional reforms. The Green Revolution and the White Revolution were some of the reforms initiated by people to improve agriculture. Some Initiatives taken by the Government are: Schemes introduced by Government such as Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS). Special weather bulletins and agricultural programmes for farmers on the radio and television were introduced. The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and middlemen. Contribution of Agriculture to the National Economy, Employment and Output In 2010-11 about 52% of the total workforce was employed by the farm sector. The share of agriculture in the GDP is declining. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), agricultural universities, veterinary services and animal breeding centres, horticulture development, research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast, etc. are a few of the initiatives introduced by the government to improve Indian agriculture.

9 N - Eco- People as Resource

Class 9 Notes - Economics- People as Resource

Population of a nation can be its asset rather than liability.

‘People as resource’ refers to a country’s working people in terms of their existing productive skills and abilities.

When existing human resource is developed by becoming educated and healthy it turns into human capital.

Human capital is superior to other resources like land and physical capital, as it uses these capitals and adds value to them.

Investment in human capital via education and medical care can give high returns in the future. Country like Japan have invested a lot in human resources. They do not have rich natural resources, but still they are called developed nations.

Human beings perform many activities which can be grouped into economic and non-economic.

Economic Activities: Economic activities refer to those activities of man which are undertaken for a monetary gain or to satisfy his/her wants. The activities of workers, farmers, shopkeepers, manufacturers, doctors, lawyers, taxi drivers, etc. fall under this category.

Market Activities and Non-Market Activities

Economic activities are also called as market activities.

Non-market activities are production for self-consumption.

Non-Economic Activities: Non-economic activities are ones that are not undertaken for any monetary gain. These are also called unpaid activities, e.g.., Puja-paath, housekeeping, helping the poor or disabled, etc.

Classification of Economic Activities. Various economic activities can be classified into

three main sectors, that is primary sector, secondary sector, and tertiary sector. The primary sector includes activities like agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry, farming and mining. In this sector, goods are produced by exploiting nature. In the secondary sector, manufacturing (small and large) and construction activities are included. The tertiary sector (also called service sector) provides various types of services like transport, education, banking, insurance, health, tourism, etc.

In India traditionally there is division of labour between men and women.

Activities of Women. Women generally look after domestic affairs like cooking of food, washing of clothes, cleaning of utensils, housekeeping and looking after children

Human Capital: Human capital is the stock of skill and productive knowledge embodied in human beings. Population (human beings) become human capital when it is provided with better education, training and health care facilities

Quality of Population.

The quality of population depends upon the literacy rate, life expectancy and skills formation acquired by the people of the country.

Role of Education:

Education is the most important component of human resource development. It contributes towards the growth of the society, enhances the national income, cultural richness and increases efficiency of governance.

In view of its contribution towards the growth of the society, government expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP rose from 0.64% in 1951-52 to 3.98% in 2002-03. However, our national goal is 6% of GDP.

Literacy is uneven between males and females. Males are more literate. It also varies with urban and rural area. Urban population is more literate compared to rural.

There were 7.68 lakh schools by 2004-05. But education is diluted by the poor quality of schooling and high drop out rates.

‘Sarv Shiksha Abhiyan’ is a significant step towards providing elementary education to all children below the age of 14.

Health:

Health is another very important component of human resource development. Efficiency of workers largely depends on their health.

There has been considerable improvement in the country’s health standard. For instance, the life expectancy at the time of birth in India rose from 37.2 years in 1951 to 63.9 years in 2001. Similarly, infant mortality rate has come down from 147 to 47 by 2010.

Infant mortality rate is the death of the child under one year of age.

India has built up a vast health infrastructure but still much more is needed to be done.

Unemployment: Unemployment is said to exist when people who are willing to work at the prevailing wage rates cannot find jobs. When we talk of unemployed people, we refer to those in the age group of 15-59 years. Children below 15 years of age and the old people above 60 are not considered while counting the number of unemployed.

Nature of Unemployment in India:

Seasonal unemployment occurs when people fail to get work during some months of the year (that is, during off-season). Farm labourers usually face this kind of problem.

Disguised unemployment is another kind of unemployment found in rural areas. Such kind of problem arises due to excessive pressure of population on agriculture. Disguised unemployment refers to a situation where in the number of workers in a job is more than actually required to do the job. The extra number of workers are disguisedly unemployed.

Increase in unemployment is an indicator of depressed economy.

Consequences of Unemployment:

(i) Unemployment leads to wastage of manpower resource.

(ii) Unemployment tends to increase the economic overload that is dependence of the unemployed on the working population.

(iii) Unemployment may lead to increase in social unrest and tension.

9 (Eco) L- 2 "People as resources" Q & ANS

Lesson - 2 "People as resources"

Question 1.What do you understand by ‘people as a resource’?

Answer : People as a resource is a way of referring to the country’s working population in terms of their existing productive skills and abilities.

Question 2. How is human resource different from other resources like land and physicalcapital?

Answer : Human resource makes use of other resources like land and physical capital to produce an output. The other resources cannot become useful on their own. This is the reason why human resource is considered to be superior to the other resources.

Question 3. What is the role of education in human capital formation?

Answer : Education is the most important component of human resource development.

→Proper education and training enable the formation of this human capital. An educated population is an asset, a resource.

→ Education enhances the quantity and quality of individual productivity, which in turn adds to the growth of the economy.

→It develops personality and sense of national consciousness among the people which are important for rapid economc growth.

Question 4.What is the role of health in human capital formation?

Answer : Health plays an important role in human capital formation. A healthy person is more likely to realize his full potential and can become an asset for the economy.An unhealthy person is less likely to realize his potential and can become a liability for the economy.

Question 5.What part does health play in the individual’s working life?

Answer : The health of an individual helps him to realise his potential and also gives him the ability to fight illness. An unhealthy individual is a liability to his place of work. The health of a person is directly related to his efficiency. As compared to an unhealthy individual, a healthy person can work more efficiently and with greater productivity.

Question 6. What are the various activities undertaken in the primary sector, secondarysector and tertiary sector?

Answer : Primary sector comprises activities related to the extraction and production of natural resources. Agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry farming, mining and quarrying are the activities undertaken in this sector.

Secondary sector comprises activities related to the processing of natural resources. Manufacturing is included in this sector.

Tertiary sector comprises activities that provide support to the primary and secondary sectors through various services. Trade, transport, communication, banking, education, health, tourism, insurance, etc., are examples of tertiary activities .

Question 7-What is the difference between economic activities and non-economic activities?

Answer : Activities that add value to the national income are called economic activities. These have two parts – market activities (production for pay or profit) and non-market activities (production for self consumption).

Non-economic activities are the ones that do not add to the national income; for example, an individual performing domestic chores.

Question 8-Why are women employed in low paid work?

Answer : Education and skill are the major determinants of the earning of any individual in the market. Due to gender discrimination, women are generally denied the education and the necessary skills to become worthy contributors to the national income. As a result, a majority of women have meagre education and low skill formation. This is one of the reasons why they get paid less than men.

Question 9-How will you explain the term unemployment?

Answer : Unemployment is a situation in which people who are able and willing to work at the going wages cannot find jobs.

An individual is termed as unemployed if he or she is part of the workforce of a country, and is capable and willing to work for payment, but is unable to do so.

Question 10-What is the difference between disguised unemployment and seasonal unemployment?

Answer : Disguised unemployment:When more persons are working in a job than actually required, the situation is termed asdisguised unemployment. For example, if in an agricultural activity eight people are engagedbut this work/activity actually requires the services of five people, then three persons are extra.If these three people out of eight are withdrawn, total production will remain unaffected.

Seasonal unemployment:Seasonal unemployment occurs when people are able to find jobs only during some months ofthe year. For Example,Agricultural labourers find work only during the busy seasons, i.e., sowing, harvesting, weeding and threshing. This is because of the seasonal character of agriculture in India.

Question 11-Why is educated unemployed, a peculiar problem of India?

Answer : Educated Unemployementis the situation wherein a number of youth with matriculation, graduation and post graduation degrees are not able to find suitable jobs. India has a huge population and every year a large number of people graduate from schools and colleges. Employment generation in various sectors is not keeping pace with the number of educated people coming out of educational institutions. Due to this, educated unemployed is a peculiar problem of India.

Question12 -In which field do you think India can build the maximum employment opportunity?

Answer : India can build the maximum employment opportunity in the agricultural sector and its based industries. Agricultureis the most labour absorbing sector of the economy. When the efficient and quality packaging happen with agricultural products then it can generate a lot of employement oppurtunities.

Question13 -Can you suggest some measures in the education system to mitigate the problem of the educated unemployed?

Answer : Measures in the education system to mitigate the problem of the educated unemployed:

→ Make education at the secondary level more career-oriented, which would endow individuals with not only education but also the requisite skills for gaining successful employment.

→ Create a sort of screening process whereby each individual chooses subjects that suit his or her abilities.

→ The introduction of newer subjects and fields of study at the school level should be accompanied by a growth of job opportunities in the sectors that would employ the students electing to study such subjects

Question15 .Which capital would you consider the best — land, labour, physical capital and human capital? Why?

Answer : Human capital makes use of the other resources like land, labour and physical capital to produce an output. The other resources cannot become useful on their own. Hence, human capital may well be considered the best among all the resources.

X C- L-2 " FEDERALISM"

(Civics) Chapter 2 *Federalism*

1. In the previous chapter, we noted that vertical division of power among different levels of government is one of the major forms of power sharing.

2. In this chapter, we focus on this form of power sharing. It is most commonly referred to as federalism.

3. We begin by describing federalism in general terms. The rest of the chapter tries to understand the theory and practice of federalism in India.

4. Towards the end of the chapter, we turn to the local government, a new and the third tier of Indian federalism.

What is federalism?

1. Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various constituent units of the country.

2. Federalism has two levels of government:

a. One is the government for the entire country that is usually responsible for a new subject of common national interest.

b. The others are governments at the level of provinces or states that look after much of the day-to-day administering of their state.

3. Federations are contrasted with unitary governments.

4. Under the unitary system, either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central.

5. In a federal system, the central government cannot order the state government to do something.

The key features of federalism:

(i) There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.

(ii) Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own JURISDICTION

( work) in a specific matter of legislation, taxation and administration.

(iii) The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the Constitution.

(iv) The fundamental provisions of the Constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government.

(v) Courts have the power to interpret the Constitution and the powers of different levels of government.

(vi) Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.

(vii) The federal system thus has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote the unity of the country, while at the same time accommodate regional diversities.

(viii) There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.

a) The first route involves independent States coming together on their own to form a bigger unit so that by pooling sovereignty and retaining identity they can increase their security. This is ‘coming together’ federations.

b) The second route is where a large country decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national government. This is ‘holding together’ federations.

What makes India a federal country?

1. The constitution declared India as the Union of States.

2. The Constitution originally provided for a two-tier system of government, the Union Government or what we call the Central Government, representing the Union of India and the State government.

3. Later the third tier of federalism was added in the form of Panchayats and municipalities.

4. The Constitution contains three lists:

I) Union Lists includes subjects of national importance such as defence of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency.

II) State Lists contains subjects of States and local importance such as police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation.

III) Concurrent List includes subjects of common interest to both the Union Governments, such as education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession .

Iv) Residury list includes newly introduced subjects like Information technology .

How is federalism practiced?

1. Constitutional provisions are necessary for the success of federalism but these are not sufficient.

2. The real success of federalism in India can be attributed to the nature of democracy politics in our country.

Linguistic States:

1. The creation of linguistic states was the first and a major test for democratic politics in our country.

2. Many old States have vanished and many new States been created.

3. In 1947, the boundaries of several old states of India were changed in order to create new States.

4. This was done to ensure that people who spoke the same language lived in the same States.

5. When the demand for the formation of States on the basis of language was raised, some national leaders feared that it would lead to the disintegration of the country.

Language Policy:

1. The second test for Indian Federation is the language policy.

2. Our Constitution did not give the status of national language to any one language.

3. Hindi was identified as the official language.

4. According to the Constitution, the use of English for official purposes was to stop in 1965.

5. The central government responded by agreeing to continue the use of English along with Hindi for official purposes.

6. Promotion does not mean that the Central Government can impose Hindi on states where people speak a different language.

Centre-state relation:

1. Restructuring the centre-state relations is one more way in which federalism has been strengthened in practice.

2. In 1990 there was the rise of regional political parties in many States of the country.

3. This was also the beginning of the era of COALITION GOVERNMENT at the Centre.

4. Since no single party got a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, the major national parties had led to enter into an alliance with many parties.

5. This led to a new culture of power sharing and respect for the autonomy of State Government.

6. Thus, federal power sharing is more effective today than it was in the early years after the Constitution came into force.

**Decentralization in India:**

(Please read this carefully it is important topic)

1. We noted above that federal government has two or more tiers of government.

2. But a vast country like India cannot be run only through these two-tiers.

3. Federal power sharing in India needs another tier of government

4. This resulted in a third-tier if the government called local government.

5. When power is taken away from Central and State government, it is called Decentralization.

6. As the local level, it is possible for the people to directly participate in decision making.

7. A major step towards Decentralization was taken in 1992.

8. The rural local government is popularly known by the name panchayati raj.

9. This is a council consisting of several ward members, often called panch, and a president or sarpanch.

10. They are directly elected by all the adult population living in that ward or village.

11. It is the decision-making body for the entire village.

12. All the panchayat Samiti or mandals in a district together constitute the Zilla Parishad.

13. Local government bodies exist for urban areas as well.

14. Big cities are constituted into municipal corporations.

15. This new system of local government is the largest experiment in democracy conducted anywhere in the world

X-1-Hist- Nationalism in Europe

NCERT Solutions Class 10

Social Science - History

Chapter 1: Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Question 1. Write a note on:

(a) Guiseppe Mazzini

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour

(c) The Greek war of independence

(d) Frankfurt Parliament(e) The role of women in nationalist struggles

Answer:

(a) Guiseppe Mazzini

Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian. He was born in Genoa in 1807. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari.

As a young man of 24, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. He subsequently founded two more underground societies - Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne.

Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind.

(b) Count Camillo de CavourHe was the chief minister of Sardinia-Piedmont state. He led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat.

Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than he did Italian.

He engineered a careful diplomatic alliance with France with the help of which Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. This, consequently helped to free the northern part of Italy from the Austrian Habsburgs.

(c) The Greek war of independence

It was an event that mobilised nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe. Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century.

The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.

Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many Western Europeans who had sympathies for the ancient Greek culture.

(d) Frankfurt parliament

All those political associations existing in the German region whose members were middle-class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans, formed an all-German National Assembly.

On Its first meeting was held on 18 May 1848 in the Church of St. Paul at Frankfurt where 831 elected representatives marched in a festive procession to take their places. They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.

When the deputies offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly

Question 2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?

Answer. The French revolutionaries took many important steps to create a sense of collective identity among the French people. These were:

The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices that could create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.

A new French flag, the tricolour, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.

The Estates General was elected by the body of active citizens and renamed the National Assembly.

New hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated, all in the name of the nation.

A centralised administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.

Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.

Regional dialects were discouraged and French, as it was spoken and written in Paris, became the common language of the nation.

Question 3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?

Answer: Marianne and Germania were female allegories for the French and the German nation respectively. These female allegories were used to portray ideas such as Liberty, Republic and Justice. These allegories remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it.

Question 4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.

Answer: In 1848, the middle class Germans tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. They were, however, repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, supported by the large landowners of Prussia. From then on, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Its chief minister Otto von Bismarck was the architect of this process with the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy. Three wars over seven years – with Austria, Denmark and France – ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Question 5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?

Answer: Napoleon introduced the following changes to make

He established civil code in 1804 also known as the Napoleonic Code.

It did away with all privileges based on birth. It established equality before the law and secured the right to property.

1 He simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.

2 In towns too, guild systems were removed. Transport and communication systems were improved.

3 Guild restrictions were removed in the towns. Transport and communication systems were improved.

4 Peasants, artisans, businessmen and workers enjoyed the new found freedom.

Discuss

Question 1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?

Answer: The 1848 revolution was led by the educated middle classes along with the poor, unemployed starving peasants and workers in Europe. In certain parts of Europe such as Germany, Italy, Poland and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, men and women of the liberal middle classes came together to push their demands for the creation of nation-states based on parliamentary principles.

The political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals were:

Politically, they demanded constitutionalism with national unification. They wanted the creation of a nation-state with a written constitution and parliamentary administration.

Socially, they wanted to rid society of its class-based partialities and birth rights. Serfdom and bonded labour had to be abolished.

Economically, they wanted freedom of markets and right to property. Abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movements of goods and capital.

Question 2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.

Answer: Three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe are:

1Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists and poets focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings as their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.

Folk songs, dances and poetry were regarded as the true spirit of the nation. So collecting and recording the different forms of folk culture was important for building the national consciousness.

The language also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian invasion, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. After the failure of an armed rebellion against Russian rule in 1831, many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. did so by refusing to preach in Russian, and by using Polish for Church gatherings and religious instruction. As a result, a large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance and helped spread the message of national unity.

Question 3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.

Answer: The development of the German and Italian nation-states in the nineteenth century.

Unification of Germany with the help of Army: In 1848, an attempt was made to unite different regions of the German Confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. However, this liberal initiative was repressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the military, who were supported by the large landowners of Prussia. Thereafter, Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national unification. Three wars over seven years with Austria, Denmark and France ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. In January I 871, the Prussian king, William I, was proclaimed as the German emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles.

Unification of Italy by a princely house: In the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into seven states. Of these, only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under the Austrian-Habsburg Empire, the centre was ruled by the Pope while the southern regions were dominated by the Bourbon kings of France. Also, the Italian language had many regional and

local variations.

In the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini sought to formulate a coherent programme for a unitary Italian republic and also had established a secret society called Young Italy for the fulfillment of his goals. The revolutionary uprisings in 1831 and 1848 largely failed. Thus, the responsibility of uniting Italian states was now on King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia-Piedmont.

The Chief Minister of Italy, Cavour led the movement to unify the regions of Italy. He was able to conclude a diplomatic alliance with France. Also, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

Apart from regular troops, a large number of armed volunteers, under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, also joined the movement. In 1860, these troops marched into south Italy and the kingdom of Two Sicilies. These areas were liberated and later joined with Sardinia. In 1870, Rome was vacated by France and it became a part of Sardinia. Finally, Italy was unified in 1871.

Question 4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?

Answer: The history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe because:

In Britain the formation of the nation-state was not the result of a sudden upheaval or revolution. It was the result of a long-drawn-out process. There was no British nation prior to the eighteenth century.

The primary identities of the people who inhabited the British Isles were ethnic ones – such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.

The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland that resulted in the formation of the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ meant, in effect, that England was able to impose its influence on Scotland. The British parliament was henceforth dominated by its English members. The growth of a British identity meant that Scotland’s distinctive culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed.

The Catholic clans that inhabited the Scottish Highlands suffered terrible repression whenever they attempted to assert their independence. The Scottish Highlanders were forbidden to speak their Gaelic language or wear their national dress, and large numbers were forcibly driven out of their homeland

5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

Answer: The Balkans was a region of ethnic and geographical variations comprising the modern-day Albania, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Slovenia, Serbia, Herzegovina and Montenegro. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans together with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. All through the nineteenth century the Ottoman Empire had sought to strengthen itself through modernisation and internal reforms but with very little success. The Balkan peoples based their claims for independence or political rights on nationality and used history to prove that they had once been independent but had subsequently been subjugated by foreign powers. Hence the rebellious nationalities in the Balkans thought of their struggles as attempts to win back their long-lost independence.