Minerals and Energy Resources

 Geography Chapter 5 – Minerals and Energy Resources

What is a Mineral?

A mineral is defined as a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure.” Minerals are found in varied forms in nature, ranging from the hardest diamond to the softest talc. Rocks are combinations of homogeneous substances called minerals.

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals

Minerals are usually found in “ores”. The term ore is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with other elements. Minerals generally occur in the following forms:

In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints.

In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or layers.

The decomposition of surface rocks and the removal of soluble constituents also form the minerals.

Minerals also occur as alluvial deposits in the sands of valley floors and the base of hills.

The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals.

Classification of Minerals

Ferrous Minerals

Ferrous minerals account for about three-fourths of the total value of the production of metallic minerals.

Iron Ore

India is endowed with fairly abundant resources of iron ore.

1)-Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron, up to 70%. It has excellent magnetic qualities.

2)-Hematite ore is the most important industrial iron ore. It contains 50 to 60% iron.

The major iron ore belts in India are:

1-Odisha-Jharkhand belt

2-Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur belt

3-Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru-Tumakuru belt

4-Maharashtra-Goa belt

Manganese

It is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy.

Nearly 10 kg of manganese is required to manufacture 1 tonne of steel.

It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.

Non-Ferrous Minerals

Non-ferrous minerals include copper, bauxite, lead, zinc and gold. These minerals play a vital role in a number of metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries.

Copper

A malleable, ductile and good conductor of heat and electricity.

Mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.

The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, the Khetri mines in Rajasthan and the Singhbhum district of Jharkhand are leading producers of copper.

Bauxite

Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium silicates.

Aluminium is obtained from bauxite. Aluminium has good conductivity and great malleability.

Deposits are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-Katni.

Non-Metallic Minerals

Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves. It can be clear, black, green, red, yellow or brown.

Mica is the most indispensable mineral used in the electric and electronic industries.

It has excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance to high voltage.

Mica deposits are found on the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau.

Rock Minerals

Limestone is found in rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium carbonates.

It is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.

Conservation of Minerals

Minerals are a non-renewable resource. It takes thousands of years for the formation and concentration of minerals. Continued extraction of ores leads to the depletion of minerals. So, it’s important to take the necessary steps so that mineral resources can be used in a planned and sustainable manner.

Energy Resources

Energy resources can be classified as

Conventional Sources: It includes firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity.

Non-Conventional Sources: It includes solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy

Let us discuss each of them in detail.

Conventional Sources of Energy

Coal:

It is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.

It is used for power generation, to supply energy to the industry as well as for domestic needs.

Lignite is a low-grade brown coal, which is soft with high moisture content.

Coal that has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures is bituminous coal.

Anthracite is the highest quality of hard coal.

Jharia, Raniganj, and Bokaro are important coalfields.

Petroleum

It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a number of manufacturing industries.

Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical industries.

Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam are major petroleum production areas in India.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is an important clean energy resource. It is considered an environment-friendly fuel.

The power and fertilizer industries are the key users of natural gas.

Compressed Natural Gas (CNG ) is used in vehicles to replace liquid fuels.

Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin

Electricity

Electricity is generated mainly in 2 ways:

By running water which drives hydro turbines to generate Hydro Electricity. It is a renewable resource of energy. India has a number of multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation, the Kopili Hydel Project.

By burning other fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas to drive turbines to produce Thermal Power. It uses non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity.

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass and energy from waste material are called Non-Conventional Energy Sources. Let’s discuss them one by one.

Nuclear or Atomic Energy

Nuclear Energy is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. Uranium and Thorium are used for generating atomic or nuclear power.

Solar Energy

Solar energy is produced by the Sun’s light. Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity.

Wind Power

Wind Energy or Power is the use of wind to generate electricity. Wind turbines are used for this purpose. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagercoil to Madurai.

Biogas

Biogas is a type of biofuel that is naturally produced from the decomposition of organic waste. Biogas is the most efficient use of cattle dung. It improves the quality of manure.

Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is the form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. In India, the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kachchh in Gujarat on the western coast and the Gangetic Delta in the Sunderban regions of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.

Geo-Thermal Energy

When heat and electricity are produced by using the heat from the interior of the earth, it is known as Geo-Thermal Energy. In India, geothermal energy is harnessed from Parvati Valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and from Puga Valley, Ladakh.

Conservation of Energy Resources

Every sector of the national economy – agriculture, industry, transport, commercial and domestic – needs inputs of energy. There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path for energy development. Here are some ways that each one of us can contribute to saving energy resources:

1-Using public transport systems instead of individual vehicles

2-Switching off electricity when not in use

3-Using power-saving devices.

4-Using non-conventional sources of energy

7-History L-4-The Mughal Empire

 Class -7th History

Chapter -4 

The Mughal Empire

1. Match the following:

mansab         –       rank

Mongol          –     Uzbeg

Sisodiya Rajput  –   Mewar

Rathor Rajput –     Marwar

Nur Jahan   –     Jahangir

subadar   –     governor

2-Fill in the blanks-

1-The capital of Mirza Hakim, Akbar’s half-bro: her, was …Kabul

2-The five Deccan Sultanate were Berar, Khandesh, Ahmadnagar,...Bijapur, Golconda

3-If zat determined a mansabdar’s rank and salary, sewer indicated his……number of horses maintained.

4-Abul Faze, Akbar’s friend and counsellor, helped him frame the idea of ...    administration ..so that he could govern a society composed of many religions, cultures, and castes.

3-. What were the central provinces under the control of the Mughals?

Answer: Panipat, Lahore, Delhi, Agra, Mathura, Amber, Ajmer, Fatehpur Sikri, Chittor, Ranthambhore and Allahabad.

4. What were the relationships between the mansabdar and the jagir?

Answer:

Relationship between the mansabdar and the jagir:

Mansabdars were those who joined Mughal service.

Jagirs were the salaries of the mansabdars in the form of revenue assignments.

It means mansabdars received jagirs as their salaries. Hence, mansabdars depended upon jagirs for their livelihood.

5-What was the role of the zamindar in Mughal administration?

Answer:  Zamtndars were powerful local chieftains appointed by the Mughal rulers. They exercised great influence and power. They collected taxes from the peasants and gave them to the Mughal emperor. Thus, they played the role of intermediaries. In some areas the zamindars became more powerful. The exploitation by Mughal administrators made them to rebellion. They got support from the peasants in rebelling against the Mughal authority.

6-How were the debates with religious scholars important in the formation of Akbar’s ideas on governance?

Answer:

In the 1570’s at Fatehpur Sikri Akbar started discussions on religion with people of different faiths. There were ulemas, Brahmanas, Jews ,Catholic priests and Zoroastrians.

These discussions took place in Ibadat Khana. These were about social and religious customs.

These interactions made him realise that religious scholars are bigots. They emphasize rituals and dogma.

Their teachings create divisions in society. This led to the idea of Sulh-i-Kul or ‘Universal peace’.

7-Why did the Mughals emphasise their Timurid and not their Mongol descent?

Answer:  The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers. From their mother’s side they were descendants of Genghis Khan, ruler of the Mongol tribes. From their father’s side they were the successors of Timur, the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey. However, the Mughals did not like to be called Mongol because Mongol’s especially Genghis Khan’s, memory was associated with the massacre of innumerable people. It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their Mongol competitors. On the other hand, the Mughals were proud of their Timurid ancestry, because it achieved good name in the history.

8. How important was the income from land revenue to the stability of the Mughal Empire?

Answer:

The income from land revenue is very important to the stability of the Mughal Empire as:

It was used for extension of empire, wars, etc.

Income is used to pay salaries/wages to army, bureaucrats, artisans and workers.

The administrative expenditure is dealt by this income.

9-Why was it important for the Mughals to recruit mansabdars from diverse backgrounds and not just Turanis and Iranis?

Answer:  The Mughal Empire expanded to different regions. Hence, it was important for the Mughals to recruit diverse bodies of people in order to make people comfortable with them. Apart from Turanis and Iranis, now there were mansabdars from Indian Muslims, Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and other groups.

10. Like the Mughal Empire, India today is also made up of many social and cultural units. Does this pose a challenge to national integration?

Answer:

No, this does not pose a challenge to national integration because:

We have a unified system of government that has the same rules and regulations for all the citizens irrespective of religion, region, etc.

We have a constitution guarding the rights of all and specifying their duties.

Now we are unified as a nation, not as distinct states or regions of different rulers.

सरदार पटेल ३१/१०/२०२३ राष्ट्रीय एकता

 पूरा नाम- सरदार वल्लभभाई  झावेरभाई पटेल

सरदार पटेल का नारा - "हमें ऊंच नीच, अमीर-गरीब तथा जाति पंथ के भेदभावों को समाप्त कर देना चाहिए।

वल्लभ भाई पटेल जन्म -31/10/1815 नाडियाड गुजरात

मृत्यु=15/12/1950 बौंबे (75 वर्ष की उम्र)

पिता- झावेरभाई पटेल

माता- लाडवा देवी

उपनाम - सरदार, लौह पुरुष

1947- के बद भारतीय स्वतन्त्रता के पहले तीन वर्षों में उप-प्रधान मन्त्री, गृह मंत्री, सूचना मंत्री तथा राज्य मंत्री के रूप में कार्य किया।

2014= उनके जन्मदिवस को राष्ट्रीय एकता दिवस मानने का फैसला 

1913 : भारत आ गए लंदन से वकालत करने

ज्ञातव्य = है कि अंग्रेजो ने भारत को आजादी की घोषणा तब देश 565 ने स्वतन्त्र शासन की देसी रियासतो मे बेटा था जिसे ब्रिटीशस स्वतंत्र शासन की छूट  दे दी थी। इस प्रकार हमारी आजादी  कई छोटी छोटी रियासतों में बंटी थी। पटेल ने गृह मन्त्री के रूप  में इन सभी से भारतीय गणतंत्र में शामिल होने के लिए आग्रह किया और हैदराबाद, भोपाल, जूनागढ़ और कश्मीर को छोड़कर 565 रियासले अपनी इच्छा से भारतीय गणतन्त्र में शामिल होने के लिए तैयार होगा। परन्तु सरदार पटेल के मजबूत इरादे के कारण सभी को अंत में भारत मे शामिल होने के लिए तैयार होना पड़ा बस हैदराबाद को शामिल करने के लिए "आपरेशन पोलो" चलाना पड़ा था ।

देसी राज्यों (रियासतों) का एकीकरण

मुख्य लेख: भारत का राजनीतिक एकीकरण

स्वतंत्रता के समय भारत में 562 देसी रियासतें थीं। इनका क्षेत्रफल भारत का 40 प्रतिशत था। सरदार पटेल ने आजादी के ठीक पूर्व (संक्रमण काल में) ही वीपी मेनन के साथ मिलकर कई देसी राज्यों को भारत में मिलाने के लिये कार्य आरम्भ कर दिया था।[3] पटेल और मेनन ने देसी राजाओं को बहुत समझाया कि उन्हे स्वायत्तता देना सम्भव नहीं होगा। इसके परिणामस्वरूप तीन को छोडकर शेष सभी राजवाडों ने स्वेच्छा से भारत में विलय का प्रस्ताव स्वीकार कर लिया। केवल जम्मू एवं कश्मीर, जूनागढ तथा हैदराबाद स्टेट के राजाओं ने ऐसा करना नहीं स्वीकारा। जूनागढ सौराष्ट्र के पास एक छोटी रियासत थी और चारों ओर से भारतीय भूमि से घिरी थी। वह पाकिस्तान के समीप नहीं थी। वहाँ के नवाब ने 15 अगस्त 1947 को पाकिस्तान में विलय की घोषणा कर दी। राज्य की सर्वाधिक जनता हिंदू थी और भारत विलय चाहती थी। नवाब के विरुद्ध बहुत विरोध हुआ तो भारतीय सेना जूनागढ़ में प्रवेश कर गयी। नवाब भागकर पाकिस्तान चला गया और 9 नवम्बर 1947 को जूनागढ भी भारत में मिल गया। फरवरी 1948 में वहाँ जनमत संग्रह कराया गया, जो भारत में विलय के पक्ष में रहा। हैदराबाद भारत की सबसे बड़ी रियासत थी, जो चारों ओर से भारतीय भूमि से घिरी थी। वहाँ के निजाम ने पाकिस्तान के प्रोत्साहन से स्वतंत्र राज्य का दावा किया और अपनी सेना बढ़ाने लगा। वह ढेर सारे हथियार आयात करता रहा। पटेल चिंतित हो उठे। अन्ततः भारतीय सेना 13 सितंबर 1948 को हैदराबाद में प्रवेश कर गयी। तीन दिनों के बाद निजाम ने आत्मसमर्पण कर दिया और नवंबर 1948 में भारत में विलय का प्रस्ताव स्वीकार कर लिया। नेहरू ने काश्मीर को यह कहकर अपने पास रख लिया कि यह समस्या एक अन्तरराष्ट्रीय समस्या है। कश्मीर समस्या को संयुक्त राष्ट्रसंघ में ले गये ।    

5 अगस्त 2019 को प्रधानमंत्री मोदी और गृहमंत्री अमित शाह के प्रयासों से कश्मीर को विशेष राज्य का दर्जा देने वाला अनुच्छेद 370 और 35(अ) समाप्त हुआ। कश्मीर भारत का अभिन्न अंग बन गया और सरदार पटेल का भारत को अखण्ड बनाने का स्वप्न साकार हुआ। 31 अक्टूबर 2019 को जम्मू-कश्मीर तथा लद्दाख के रूप में दो केन्द्र शासित प्रेदश अस्तित्व में आये। अब जम्मू-कश्मीर केन्द्र के अधीन रहेगा और भारत के सभी कानून वहाँ लागू होंगे। पटेल जी को कृतज्ञ राष्ट्र की यह सच्ची श्रद्धांजलि है।